Subject: Whole school priorities

Jim Tognolini asserts that assessment is a central activity in all education and that its main function is to improve learning. He stresses that professional judgement is essential in this process and that such judgement is owned by teachers. Jim outlines how the Centre for Educational Measurement and Assessment (University of Sydney) used the findings of their research to develop professional learning modules for teachers on Assessment Literacy and Data Literacy. . .

Introduction

Whenever I talk about assessment to people, I like to make it very clear how I define assessment. This is because I think it is critical in assessment at all levels to have a shared understanding of what it is we are talking about. Too often, particularly in assessment, measurement and evaluation, we have discussions with colleagues using terms with the assumption we all have the same shared meaning. Generally, we do not.

Assessment

Assessment is a central activity in education and necessary for understanding student progress and development. It involves making judgments, based on evidence, about progress in the acquisition of the knowledge and skills required by the syllabuses and the school curriculum. It is through assessment that we understand learning is occurring, hence assessing is an essential component of classroom activity.

The definition that Gordon Stanley and I arrived at, after experimenting with different definitions over many years, is “Assessment involves professional judgement based upon an image formed by the collection of information about student performance.” (Tognolini & Stanley, 2007). As teachers, we are primary agents in assessment and we are doing it formally and informally every day. It is interesting to reflect on the relationship between the classroom assessment and the formal assessment (e.g. HSC, NAPLAN, NAP). The validity and the credibility of the formal assessments are largely determined by classroom assessments. If, for example, the results for the HSC were totally “different” from those that the teachers expected (i.e. the students who they expected to do well, based on the classroom assessments, did a lot worse; and those who were expected to do poorly did a lot better across the system) then it would call into doubt the results in the formal assessments. Going back to the definition of assessment above, assessment involves professional judgement and that professional judgement is owned on a day-to-day basis by teachers. However, the interest in assessment goes beyond the classroom. There are many other players who have a stake in assessment and in understanding what it means.

The process of assessment is generally used, at classroom level, for the purpose of monitoring performance and for understanding the learning that has taken place so the next step in the learning process can be undertaken. Thus, from an educational perspective, the main function of assessment is to improve learning. Whenever information is collected about student performance there should be an intention by the teacher to provide feedback to the students in a way that will make clear where the students are in their learning and what they have to do to progress.

When the learning goals have been achieved, the purpose of assessment is to provide evidence of that achievement. Assessment provides feedback to the student, the teacher and the education system. Feedback is an essential requirement for learning (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).

As indicated in the definition, central to the way that teachers assess is the idea of building up an image of what it is students know and can do. It is this image in a standards-referencing system that is used by teachers to build evidence to “track” and report student progress along a developmental continuum (commonly referred to as progression).

The assessment and evidence generation, and interpretation, role that teachers have is critical to the success of the teaching and learning. If the assessments are not really assessing the appropriate outcome and/or are technically unsound, then the image of what it is that students know and can do is flawed and this is not fair to the students.

Purpose of the paper

The purpose of this paper is to show how, starting with Standard 5 of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2014), we identified the specific elaborations of assessment knowledge and understanding that teachers (at the Graduate and Proficient career levels respectively), need to be able to demonstrate in order to provide evidence that they have met the standard at the particular career level. Using the elaborations that teachers and assessment experts described as essential, we built two professional development programs: one is called Assessment Literacy for School Teachers and the other Data Literacy for School Teachers.

This paper describes how the Centre for Educational Measurement and Assessment (CEMA) at the University of Sydney, working in conjunction with the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) took each of the foci for Standard 5, identified the specific elaborations of assessment knowledge and understanding that teachers ( at the Graduate and Proficient career levels respectively), need to be able to demonstrate in order to provide evidence that they have met the standard at the particular career level.

Assessment and the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers

Assessment is so important to the practice of teaching that it is reflected in the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2014) https://www.aitsl.edu.au/teach/standards as a separate standard (Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning) along with its 5 foci (5.1 Assess student learning; 5.2 Provide feedback to students on their learning; 5.3 Make consistent and comparable judgements; 5.4 Interpret student data; and, 5.5 Report on student achievement).

Elaborations of Standard 5 of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers

Starting with the foci, we delineated each of the focus areas for Standard 5 into elaborations. An elaboration is a description of the knowledge and understanding the teachers need in order to be able to demonstrate the standard.

Table 1 gives an example of this process.

TABLE 1. Knowledge and understanding needed to be able to demonstrate the graduate and proficient standards described in the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers

5.1 Assess student learning:

(click on table to view)

It can be seen from Table 1 that in Column 3, (headed “Proficient Standard Descriptor”) the Proficient standard for focus 5.1 “Assess student learning” is presented. In column 4, (headed “Elaborations of knowledge and understanding”) are a couple of the potential assessment knowledge and understanding elaborations that teachers might need to be able to demonstrate the standard descriptor presented in column 3.

TABLE 2 Distribution of elaborations by graduate and proficient career levels of Standard 5 of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers

(click on table to view)

It can be seen from Table 2 that there were 46 elaborations of the 5 foci associated with Standard 5 at the Proficient teacher level.

Each of the elaborations was then placed in a questionnaire and presented to a small sample of a) primary teachers; b) secondary teachers; and, c) assessment experts identified by the Deans of Education at Universities.

Respondents were asked to rate each of the elaborations as “Essential”, “Desirable” or “Not Necessary” to demonstrate the standard aligned with the elaboration. Each question was framed as follows “To what extent do proficient teachers (or teachers at the Proficient career level) have to know “THE ELABORATION IS STATED” to demonstrate the specified standard.

For example, “To what extent do Proficient teachers have to know how to deliver feedback that includes suggestions for improvement e.g. skill development, content knowledge, foundational subject knowledge or skills, test technique, student health, wellbeing and motivation” to demonstrate PROFICIENT STANDARD 5.2?

After completing the questionnaires, respondents were invited to attend focus group sessions to discuss the outcomes from their responses to the questionnaire. The overall outcome from the questionnaire, and the associated focus groups, was a comprehensive pool of content that could be tailored to assessment professional development courses to provide support to teachers responsible for assessing and making evidence-based decisions on assessment data.

The content split naturally into two groups, some we called Assessment Literacy and the others we called Data Literacy.

Assessment Literacy and Data Literacy

There are numerous examples of definitions of what is meant by assessment literacy in the literature. For example, Stiggins (1991a; 1991b) defined teacher assessment literacy as knowledge about educational assessment and the skills required to apply that knowledge to measure student learning. Fullan and Watson (2000) defined it as the capacity of teachers, either on their own, or in collaboration with other teachers, to analyse and correctly comprehend student work and performance data, and, at the same time, be able to design classroom and school plans to change circumstance as needed to improve results.

We suggest, from an analysis of the elaborations that emerge from the Australian Professional Teacher Standards, that it refers to the knowledge and understanding required to be able to carry out good quality assessment practice. This includes the understanding of assessment terminology; the development and use of assessment methods and techniques; and an understanding of what is required to achieve high standards in assessment.

In essence, this means assessment literate teachers know how to write and select high-quality assessments (including Higher Order Thinking Skill (HOTS) items); know how to integrate results obtained from assessments with improvements in learning (Formative Assessment and Assessment for Learning); know how to communicate accurately about student learning; and can demonstrate data literacy.

Data literacy, on the other hand, as defined by Mandinach and Honey (2008) is “… the ability to understand and use data effectively to inform decisions. It is comprised of a specific skill set and knowledge base that enables teachers to transform data into information and ultimately to actionable knowledge (evidence)”. An analysis of our elaborations suggests that data literate teachers know how to identify, collect, organise, analyse, summarise and prioritise data. They also know how to develop hypotheses; identify problems; interpret data; convert data into evidence; and, determine, plan, implement, and monitor courses of action. These are the steps that enable teachers to take data, and turn it into evidence which can then be used to inform decision making and teaching in the classroom.

The Importance of Assessment Literacy and Data Literacy for Teachers

At the national and state levels, data are informing major educational, accountability and investment decisions. At the school level, school assessment data, (including data from large-scale testing programs such as the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), and the Higher School Certificate (HSC), underpin policy and accountability processes between school administrators, principals, teachers, students and school communities.

Arguably more important, is the use of assessment and data literacy to inform teaching, and to support learning in the classroom. The education community, including NESA, has identified an urgent need to develop teachers’ professional practice in these areas over the coming five years. In response to this need, The Centre (CEMA) has entered into a partnership with NESA. The main aim of this partnership is to provide professional learning to teachers at all levels within schools.

Learning modules have been designed for primary and secondary teachers in Assessment Literacy and these will soon be complemented by a suite of modules on Data Literacy, which is currently being designed. The Centre is planning to develop further modules for teachers in middle and senior leadership roles.

The professional learning modules in Assessment Literacy support teachers’ engagement with, and understanding of, assessment and the use of data to inform teaching and learning.

The modules in Assessment Literacy are endorsed by NESA at Proficient Teacher level, meaning that all teachers may learn more about aspects of assessment while, at the same time, achieving their hours for maintenance of accreditation. Highly Accomplished and Lead Teachers may complete these modules as ‘Teacher identified’ PD. They are competitively priced. Furthermore, the modules are offered fully online and are, therefore, available on demand and can be completed at the teacher’s own pace.

The University has assessed the professional learning modules for articulation to award programs, particularly the Master of Education programs, of which there are nine streams, including Digital Technologies, Special and Inclusive Education, Educational Management and Leadership. Information on the Master units may be found on CEMA’s website.

References:

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), (2014). Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.https://www.aitsl.edu.au/teach/standards

Fullan, M., & Watson, N. (2000). School-Based Management: Reconceptualizing To Improve Learning Outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 11, 453-473.https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy2.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1076/sesi.11.4.453.3561

Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The Power of Feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. http://journals.sagepub.com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/full/10.3102/003465430298487

Mandinach, E. B., Honey, M., Light, D., & Brunner, C. (2008). A conceptual framework for data-driven decision making. In E. B. Mandinach & M. Honey (Eds.), Data-driven school improvement: Linking data and learning (pp. 13-31). New York, NY: Teachers College Press

Stiggins, R. J. (1991a). Assessment Literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 72, 534-539 https://sydney.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/openurl?institution=61USYD_INST&vid=61USYD_INST:sydney&ctx_enc=info:ofi%2Fenc:UTF-8&rft.volume=72&ctx_tim=2020-08-03T22:58:00Z&rfr_id=info:sid%2Fgale:&rft.jtitle=Phi%20Delta%20Kappan&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=534&rft.aulast=Stiggins&svc_val_fmt=info:ofi%2Ffmt:mtx:sch_svc&req_dat=info:sid%2Fgale&url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.date=1991-03&rft.spage=534&rft.au=Stiggins,%20Richard%20J.&rft.atitle=Assessment%20literacy&rft.issn=00317217

Stiggins, R. J. (1991b). Relevant Classroom Assessment Training for Teachers. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 10(1), 7-12. https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy2.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/j.1745-3992.1991.tb00171.x

Tognolini, J. & Stanley, G. (2007). Standards-Based Assessment: A tool and means to the development of human capital and capacity building in education. Australian Journal of Education, 51(2), 129-145. https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1177/000494410705100203#articleCitationDownloadContainer

Professor Jim Tognolini is Director of The Centre for Educational Measurement and Assessment (CEMA) which is situated within the University of Sydney School of Education and Social Work. The work of the Centre is focused on the broad areas of teaching, research, consulting and professional learning for teachers.

The Centre is currently providing consultancy support to a number of schools. These projects include developing a methodology for measuring creativity; measuring 21st Century Skills; developing school-wide practice in formative assessment. We have a number of experts in the field: most notably, Professor Jim Tognolini, who in addition to conducting research offers practical and school-focused support.

The professional learning modules are available now at the following site: https://sydney.nicheit.com.au/education_social_work/web/workshop

During registration, teachers are required to use their individual teacher email address and create a 9-character password to access the selected module in Canvas. Payment by credit card is required to complete registration and be granted access to the course.

Leeanda Smith raises significant questions about the impediments, caused by gender stereotypes and gender based power balances, placed before women when accessing leadership positions, within the teaching profession and the wider society. She explains why it is time to re-evaluate matters related to women and leadership . . .

The culture of education systems and their management structures, the wages, working conditions and organisational practices transmit strong messages about the value placed on the contribution and participation of women. It is educationally important for students to see their teachers in a range of roles, across all curriculum subjects and in all leadership positions. The reinforcement of gender stereotypes, and, therefore, gender based power imbalances, by a lack of representation of women in senior leadership roles, and within all subject areas, cannot be ignored.

The NSW Department of Education Annual Report (2018, pp. 79-81) identifies just over 82 per cent of teachers in primary schools and 60 percent in high schools are women. The Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE) data shows that in 2019 these numbers are consistent in all regions across the state. However, this proportion is not reflected in leadership positions where just over 66 per cent of principals in primary schools are women and high schools are yet to achieve 50 per cent representation. Based on the numbers reported, even though there are fewer men in teaching, there is a higher proportional representation for men in leadership positions. That means around 30 percent of men in primary schools are in Assistant Principal, Deputy Principal and Principal positions compared to just under 18 percent of women and high schools see almost 25 percent of men compared to just under 13 percent of women.

(click on table to download and view)

Source: The NSW Department of Education Annual Report (2018)

According to the NSW Department of Education Diversity and Inclusion Strategy (2018-2022) “Gender diversity in senior leadership helps improve problem solving and collaboration and leads to higher organisational performance. Our aim is to maintain a gender balance at senior leadership levels. This will involve understanding the leadership pipeline and any structural barriers in place that may be impacting disproportionately on women’s progression into leadership roles”. The strategy also identifies targets of 50 percent of ‘senior leadership’ roles (P3 and above) to be held by women and to increase the representation of women in senior leadership roles to 60 percent by 2025.

Recognising structural barriers

Australia is not performing well when it comes to gender equity. The World Economic Forum’s 2020 Global Gender Gap Index ranks Australia 44th out of 153 countries (New Zealand ranks 6th). Australia has dropped 5 places in 2 years. According to the Forum’s report, gender parity has a fundamental bearing on whether or not economies and societies thrive. It should be no surprise that Australia is ranked number 1 for educational attainment, a ranking which has not changed since 2006. Educational attainment refers to the overall access to education and the capacity of a country to educate women and men equally in literacy and numeracy. Despite this, Australia’s overall ranking, as well as the ranking on labour force participation and female representation in leadership, has worsened (Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees’ Association [SDA], 2020 p. 1). If obtaining an education is not the issue, the key factors contributing to the worsening gap are most likely structural barriers and discrimination. The report also found that career and work interruptions are responsible for 21% of the proportion of the gender pay gap which is the largest changing factor increasing from 9% in 2007. (SDA, 2020 p. 1)

This is related to the way domestic and care work were not included in the early economic models because activities like raising children and feeding the family weren’t seen to create tangible goods that could be bought, traded or sold. The early economists decided that such undertakings didn’t contribute to prosperity (Marcal 2015, p.30). That decision has had a sustained impact on the creation of, value placed on, and wages within, industries where there are more women. As Katrine Marcal points out the question of how it could be possible to combine family with work outside the home isn’t a complaint from the privileged female elite that wants to ‘have it all’, rather it is an enormous challenge that affects entire economies and populations (2015, p. 195).

Women continue to have majority representation in the category of part-time work. In NSW public schools just over 88 per cent (17,425) of teachers who were in part-time employment in 2018 were women. The Department (2018) also reported that 61,834 staff (84.7 per cent of whom were women) accessed ‘flexible’ work options including part-time, job sharing, leave without pay and varying flexible hour arrangements. The report further identifies that 51,582 staff (78.5 per cent of whom were women) took short term absences for family and community responsibilities.

Structural bias means that it is often harder for those working part-time to obtain relieving in higher duties opportunities and advertised positions, and in many cases it takes much longer to obtain promotions. Women often refer to the ‘motherhood penalty’ to describe some of these barriers. Women have always worked but the rigid ways organisational leadership is defined, jobs are structured and rewarded, and expectations reinforced about who will do the domestic work contribute to these obstacles (Fox, 2017, p. 189).

Sheryl Sandberg’s (2013) form of corporate feminism (i.e. asking women to “lean in”) is far easier than demanding that we fundamentally change the way organisations operate: who they operate for; and how we reward and approach work. The ideals on which Sandberg’s view trade, such as personal development and focusing on individual success stories, do not provide the solution. Encouraging women to just be more confident and assertive implies that the barriers they are facing will then simply disappear. Rather we should ‘lean out’ and challenge the structural inequality by examining the organisations that women are struggling to gain promotions within (Foster, 2015 p. 20-21).

With the ‘Merit Selection’ employment and promotion procedures in NSW schools it’s not lack of talent, ability, or scarcity of potential candidates that prevents women’s full participation. Instead, it is the actual structures and processes that need to be changed to remove the barriers (conscious and unconscious) to participation and progression into leadership positions for women. Identifying structural barriers is about ensuring that there is a legitimate organisational improvement not just for women, but ultimately for all employees (Fox, 2017, p. 185).

Castilla & Benard(2010) studied the ‘paradox of meritocracy’ where the managers in an organisational culture that promotes meritocracy may, ironically, show greater bias in favour of men over equally performing women. The resulting criteria for appointments, particularly at senior levels, reveal they have often been modelled on past incumbents. In many cases there’s a good statistical chance that any such incumbent will have been a man, and so another man can appear to be the best match. It’s hardly meritocracy if significant parts of the population are prevented from accessing these opportunities and as Vicky Pryce (2015, p.149) cautions don’t assume that others are not as good simply because they have not applied for those positions.

One strategy to redress this bias is to implement quotas and this is often a highly contested solution. However, in ‘Accidental Feminists’ Jane Caro pointedly remarks, to the opponents to quotas for women, that men have benefited from 100 percent quotas and every incursion women have made has had to be fought for against this 100 percent male quota (Caro, 2019, p. 212). Quotas, intelligently applied, are a way to make serious and lasting progress by ensuring greater diversity at all decision making levels (Pryce, 2015, p.125). Quotas can facilitate genuine career progression, succession planning and retention of skilled employees over their career (Pryce, 2015, 128).

Defining and redefining leadership

One of the criticisms I’ve faced over the years is that I’m not aggressive enough or assertive enough, or somehow because I’m empathetic, it means I’m weak. I totally rebel against that. I refuse to believe that you cannot be both compassionate and strong.
Jacinda Ardern (2018)

Professor Mary Beard lamented in ‘Women and Power’ (2017, p.86) that you cannot easily fit women into a structure that is already coded as male. That means changing that structure, and changing the way we think about power, is essential. Beard points out that power must be decoupled from public prestige. It means thinking collaboratively, about the power of followers not just of leaders and thinking about power as “an attribute or even a verb (‘to power’), not as a possession”. Sadly, the mental and cultural template for a powerful person, a leader, remains resolutely male (Beard, 2017, p. 53) and more often than not, women are still perceived as belonging outside power. This is illustrated by the shared metaphors we use such as ‘storming the citadel’ or ‘smashing the glass ceiling’ which underline that female exteriority. Beard, like Caro, articulates the ways in which women seeking leadership are treated as taking something to which they are not entitled (Beard, 2017).

Fear and resentment build when there are challenges to a strong sense of entitlement to, and ownership of, a role (Fox, 2017, p.160). Many of those who resist attempts to tackle the status quo strongly believe that the system works just fine, particularly if they have fared reasonably well in it. ‘Privilege is invisible to those who have it’, as US gender academic Michael Kimmel says in his TED Talk (2015) ‘Why Gender Equality Is Good for Everyone’. This is a powerful talk and definitely worth watching.

Catherine Fox points out that scrutiny of leadership models is long overdue and dismantling the ‘remedial model’ for women leads us to challenge the pervasive belief that stereotypical masculine behaviour should be the standard for all (Fox, 2017, p. 6). Mentoring features heavily in this model, and though it has its uses, it is often promoted as a ‘fix all’ for women to achieve leadership positions. Fox asserts mentoring is based on a deficit model that aims to equip women with skills they are assumed to be lacking. Most mentoring programs don’t challenge the male model but help to prop up existing norms (about what it takes to be successful) by reinforcing traditional, male dominated power structures and “in-groups”, rather than transforming them (Fox, 2017, p. 124). It is about a short agenda with a focus on individuals, compared to the much harder and longer agenda of tackling who has power and how that reproduces inequality.

Leading and Leadership

You don’t inspire your teammates by showing them how amazing you are. You inspire them by showing them how amazing they are.
Robyn Benincasa (2012)

As Kathy Deacon wrote in ‘Lead but Let Others Come First’ (JPL, 2020), dispersing leadership amongst staff provides opportunities for individuals and teams of teachers to utilise their skills and expertise to the full. Redefining leadership is about building a culture where team members feel safe, that doesn’t indulge in blame-shifting or in-fighting and where leaders are not expected to know everything. The best leaders are confident in their abilities but modest and supportive, open to advice and seek out capable people to build successful partnerships, and ensure team members feel valued and appreciated (Rizvi, 2017, p. 210-11).

It is important to avoid becoming an over-controlling ‘manager’ who believes that all of the work has to be done in a particular way because it is a direct reflection on their ability as a manager. The over-controlling manager does not see that employee stress, or reactionary behaviour, might be caused by their own management style (Clarke, 2005, p. 263).

There is a fundamental responsibility to carefully examine our cultural assumptions about women’s relationship with power and leadership. Flexible work, childcare, mentoring and all of the practical things are importantly enabling but they are only part of what needs to be done if we want to give women their place inside power, as leaders. For that we have to be able to understand how, and why, we think as we do. (Beard, 2017, p.57). To be effective, to make a difference in the world, to be taken seriously, together as much as individually, then picking at the threads to unravel the stereotypes is important, and calling out all acts of sexism is crucial (Fox, 2017, p.193).

In challenging traditional models of leadership more women will recognise the contribution, to what they’ve achieved, of their own talents rather than ascribing it to ‘luck’ (Rizvi, 2017, p. 6). Jamila Rizvi encourages us to use whatever power and influence we have to advocate for a fairer, more equitable and inclusive workplace for everyone not just the people who are exactly like us because “that is what sets a leader apart from a manager, and a person of integrity apart in an unjust world.” (Rizvi, 2017,p. 216).

Ultimately leadership should not be a rigid, top down, hierarchical mode that demands compliance. Genuine leadership happens at all levels and in all directions. Good leaders understand the importance of diversity in decision making, seeking out talented people, striving for equity, and being collaborative and inclusive. It is imperative that for society to progress, women are active participants where decisions are being made.

References:

Beard, M 2017, Women & Power – A Manifesto, Profile Books, London

Robyn Benincasa, (2012). “How Winning Works: 8 Essential Leadership Lessons from the Toughest Teams on Earth”, p.17, Harlequin

Caro, J 2019, Accidental Feminists, Melbourne University Press, Victoria

Castilla, E and Bernard, S 2010, The Paradox of Meritocracy in Organizations Administrative Science Quarterly, Sage Publications USA https://ideas.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Castilla-Benard-2010.pdf

Clarke, J 2005, Working with Monsters, Random House Australia

Deacon, K 2020, Lead but Let Others Come First, JPL 11 (Semester 1, 2020)

Dowd, M 2018, The Lady of the Rings: Jacinda Rules New York Times, USA
Interview with Jacinda Arden https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/08/opinion/sunday/jacinda-ardern-new-zealand-prime-minister.html

Foster, D 2015, Lean Out, Repeater Books, UK

Fox, C 2017, Stop Fixing Women, New South Books, Sydney

Marcal, K 2015, Who cooked Adam Smith’s Dinner? Scribe Publications, UK

NSW Department of Education Annual Report 2018 https://education.nsw.gov.au/about-us/strategies-and-reports/annual-reports

NSW Department of Education Diversity and Inclusion Strategy (2018-2022) https://education.nsw.gov.au/news/latest-news/diversity-and-inclusion-strategy-2018-2022

Pryce, V, 2015, Why Women Need Quotas, Biteback Publishers, London

Rizvi, J 2017, Not Just Lucky, Penguin Random House, Australia

Sandberg, S and Scovell, N 2013, Lean In: Women, Work and the Will to Lead
Alfred A Knopf New York

SDA Discussion Paper, 30 June 2020, A Pink Recession… so why the Blue Recovery Plan?
COVID19 – IMPACT ON WOMEN – The need for effective and equitable recovery policies and interventions. 
SDA: The union for workers in Retail. Fast Food. Warehouse. Hair & Beauty. Modelling.

TED Talk, Michael Kimmel 2015 – Why Gender Equality Is Good for Everyone https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7n9IOH0NvyY

World Economic Forum, 2020 Global Gender Index:
https://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2020/the-global-gender-gap-index-2020/

Leeanda Smith was elected as the NSW Teachers Federation’s Women’s Coordinator in August 2017.

Prior to this she has been the Organiser for St George, Eastern Suburbs and Canterbury-Bankstown Teachers Associations.

Leeanda is a Primary K-6 teacher who began teaching in 1994 in Campbelltown. She has held the roles of Federation Representative, Women’s Contact and Relieving Assistant Principal in schools. She was a Councillor for and the Secretary of Camden-Campbelltown Teachers Association. Leeanda was a Federation Project Officer and Relief Officer in 2006 prior to her election as a City Organiser.

Mel Smith asserts that protecting young people and maintaining student wellbeing are whole school responsibilities. She gives some practical advice to teachers about how to support LGBTIQ students as part of our commitment to ensuring that all our students (from all different backgrounds) feel safe and part of the school community and that they see themselves in the content that is taught. . .

Introduction

Public schools are representative of the diverse community of which they are a part and include people from a range of backgrounds, geographic locations, skills and abilities. Part of the diverse mix of schools includes those students, teachers and families that are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer or additional gender and sexuality diverse identities (LGBTIQ).

There have been a number of Australian and international research projects that have examined the experience of young LGBTIQ people and their school lives. From research we know that LGBTIQ students often experience bullying due to their gender identity and/or sexuality, which can lead to negative outcomes for these young people in a range of areas (Hillier et al., 2010). We also know that a lot of this bullying occurs in educational settings and there are things that schools can do to address such behaviour (Hillier et al., 2010; Ullman, 2015).

LGBTIQ young people exist in schools whether they are seen or “out” to the school community, and as the Department of Education (D of E) states, in Legal Issues Bulletin 55 (2014), that schools need a “…proactive approach to the development of positive school environments in which every student is respected and valued. Additionally, schools have a legal duty to protect students from foreseeable risk of harm and to do what is reasonably practicable to ensure their safety.”

Research indicates that ALL schools will have LGBTIQA+ students (and/or families). Findings from the 6th National Survey of Australian Secondary Students and Sexual Health 2018 (Fisher et al. 2019) revealed the sexual attraction of students in Years 10, 11 and 12 with 39% of respondents indicating they did not exclusively have heterosexual feelings of attraction.

This finding is something that has increased over the years of the survey with the percentage of young people reporting some, or exclusive, sexual attraction to people of the same gender growing from 6% in 1997 to 39% in 2018 (Fisher & Kauer 2019).

New Zealand research about secondary students that included a transgender option indicated that up to 4% of students identified as transgender or were not sure of their gender (Clark et al. 2013). Recent Australian research (Fisher et al. 2019) reported a trans/gender diverse group of 2.3% but noted that, due to unknown response biases, the results do not constitute a representative sample of students in the senior years of secondary school.

Additionally, we also know that 1.7% of people could be intersex (Intersex Human Rights Australia, 2020) and LGTBIQ matters apply to primary schools as well as to high schools. There are many transgender students living as their authentic self from a young age and same sex parents/rainbow families form part of the school community in many of our schools.

Wellbeing

Protecting young people and maintaining student wellbeing are whole school responsibilities and need to be reinforced throughout the school, in all classes as well as the wider school curriculum.

Research indicates that where school environments are marginalising, LGBTIQ students have lower levels of morale, safety and connection to peers, teachers and the school more generally as well as higher levels of distress (Ullman, J. 2015). However in schools that are more inclusive, the opposite was found to be the case. The report also found that those LGBTIQ students who were more connected to school were happier and less distressed while there and also felt as if their teachers were personally invested in them. These students were more likely to report enhanced academic outcomes, including a stronger reported likelihood to attend university.

The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008) states that, “Schools play a vital role in promoting the intellectual, physical, social, emotional, moral, spiritual and aesthetic development and wellbeing of young Australians,” which is reflected in the NSW DoE’s Wellbeing Framework for Schools. The Wellbeing Framework (2015) recognises that the concept of wellbeing and its close links with learning are not new and that a wealth of evidence is available on this topic.

Additionally, the Department recognises that “Particular groups of students may be more vulnerable to experiencing low levels of connectedness, including those from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, students with disabilities, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender students. Students with low connectedness are two to three times more likely to experience depressive symptoms compared to more connected peers.” (Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation, 2018)

Consequently, schools and teachers should be seeking to boost LGBTIQ students’ wellbeing at school through ensuring their safety and freedom from bullying, as well as connection to the school. Examples of ways that schools and teachers can build connections with their LGBTIQ students or those from rainbow families include:

• the use of welcoming symbols and visual cues (e.g. rainbow flags, LGBTIQ inclusive posters etc.)
• developing positive professional relationships with students which are safe and supportive
• training for staff which addresses expectations of inclusivity of LGBTIQ students/families (including inclusive language, the use of pronouns and how to challenge homophobia /transphobia in the classroom or playground)
• promoting a positive school climate through ensuring LGBTIQ students are included and referenced in school policies (including uniform, wellbeing and discipline policies)
• setting clear guidelines for a consistent whole school approach to address bias based bullying and harassment (of LGBTIQ students or those perceived to be) which focuses on an educative and/or restorative approach
• the opportunity for engagement with the school via student groups such as GSAs (Gender and Sexuality Alliances)
• establishing safe and supportive classroom/school environments that respect diversity and identity and where LGBTIQ students/rainbow families feel safe and have a sense of belonging. This safety should extend to the ability to report marginalisation from others.
• recognising significant LGBTIQ community dates including, but not limited to, International Day against Homophobia, Biphobia and Transphobia (IDAHOBIT),Wear It Purple Day and Pride month (June)
• knowing where, and how, to refer students for additional information and support, including community LGBTIQ groups, if needed
• encouraging, facilitating and incorporating same-sex parents/caregivers in the classroom and school community activities
• being visible as an ally, which can be done through the display of LGBTIQ inclusive materials such as posters, and role modelling appropriate language and behaviour

Curriculum

Educational programs should be respectful and inclusive of all students, including those who are LGBTIQ or from rainbow families. Relationships and gender identity may be discussed in many curriculum areas, including PDHPE classes. Topics covering human rights, the changing nature of the law as well as family histories may all include discussion about LGBTIQ perspectives. Such practices are in line with syllabus guidelines and enable students to connect with content that is meaningful to them.

Research has shown that one aspect of LGBTIQ marginalised school environments was limited representations of sexuality and gender diverse individuals. However, teachers who spoke in a positive and supportive manner about sexuality and gender diversity contribute to a positive school environment (Ullman, 2015).

In this report many students felt that their teachers were reluctant to discuss sexuality and gender diversity with them despite student interest to do so, and even in the face of overtly discriminatory behaviours (Ullman, 2015). These findings echo other research and anecdotal reports where teachers have expressed discomfort or reluctance to address LGBTIQ topics due to a lack of direction or support from their educational system or because of fears of becoming targets of the media or broader community (Cumming-Potvin & Martino, 2014; Leonard et al, 2010).

These concerns have been exacerbated for some with claims that the federally funded Safe Schools program and Gayby Baby resource were banned in NSW. However, this has not ever been the case and schools can continue to use both resources, ensuring they adhere to Departmental policy while doing so (particularly the Controversial Issues and Audio-visual Materials Policies).

Research has also found that current sexuality education in many schools is a problem for young people but more so for LGBTIQ young people whose sexual health needs are not acknowledged, or included, and in some cases the messages that are being given are harmful (Hiller et al 2010, Robinson et al 2013). The experience is more isolating for gender diverse and intersex young people who in many cases fail to be represented in teaching topics at all.

The need to also incorporate LGBTIQ inclusive topics in the curriculum in primary schools is highlighted by the facts that at least half same sex attracted young people realise their attraction while in primary school (Hiller et al. 2013), and that there are often rainbow families that are not recognised, or acknowledged, in the stories that are read or the content that is covered in class.

Overall this research indicates that including LGBTIQ inclusive topics in teaching and learning programs contributes to creating safer and more inclusive schools. This results in improvements in students’ wellbeing, their educational engagement and, ultimately, academic achievement.

Steps teachers and schools can take to create a more inclusive curriculum include:

• ensuring LGBTIQ and diverse family representations are included in library books and resources
• incorporating inclusive and representative materials in both primary and secondary school curricula, which serves to reflect and validate their identity and/or family
• incorporating LGBTIQ inclusive material into sexuality education programs
• exploring and addressing gender expectations and stereotyping, and incorporating discussion of gender diversity more directly
• engaging in professional development to expand knowledge and understanding of LGBTIQ inclusivity in schools

Conclusion

The strategies that have been suggested above are not the only ways to be inclusive of LGBTIQ students, and individual students will respond to different approaches based on their personality, past experiences and interests. It is important that, as educators, we ensure that students (from all different backgrounds) feel safe and part of the school community and that they see themselves in the content that is taught. Doing so leads to more engaged and successful students who flourish and who are more likely to reach their full potential. It also expands other students’ horizons of their own lived experience and builds empathy and understanding of diversity.

References:

Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation 2018. Every student is known, valued and cared for in our schools – an environmental scan, NSW Department of Education, https://www.cese.nsw.gov.au

Clark, T. C., Fleming, T., Bullen, P., Denny, S., Crengle, S., Dyson, B., Fortune, S., Lucassen, M., Peiris-John, R., Robinson, E., Rossen, F., Sheridan, J., Teevale, T., Utter, J. 2013 Youth’12 Overview: The health and wellbeing of New Zealand secondary school students in 2012. Auckland, New Zealand: The University of Auckland

NSW Department of Education and Communities 2015 The Wellbeing Framework for Schools, NSW Department of Education viewed 29/6/2020 https://education.nsw.gov.au/content/dam/main-education/student-wellbeing/whole-school-approach/Wellbeing_Framework_for_Schools.pdf

Cumming-­‐Potvin,W. & Martino, W. 2014. Teaching about queer families: surveillance, censorship, and the schooling of sexualities. Teaching Education, 25(3), 309-­‐333.

Fisher, C.M. and Kauer, S. 2019. National Survey of Australian Secondary Students and Sexual Health 1992 – 2018: Trends Over Time, (ARCSHS Monograph Series No. 118), Bundoora: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University.

Fisher, C. M., Waling, A., Kerr, L., Bellamy, R., Ezer, P., Mikolajczak, G., Brown, G., Carman, M. & Lucke, J. 2019. 6th National Survey of Australian Secondary Students and Sexual Health 2018, Bundoora: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University.

Hillier, L., Jones, T., Monagle, M., Overton, N., Gahan, L., Blackman, J. and Mitchell, A. 2010. Writing Themselves In 3: The third national study of the sexual health and wellbeing of same-sex attracted and gender questioning young people. The Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University, Melbourne.

Intersex Human Rights Australia 2013, Australia, accessed 29/6/2020 https://ihra.org.au/16601/intersex-numbers/

Legal Services Directorate 2014. Legal Issues Bulletin, No. 55 Transgender students in schools – legal rights and responsibilities NSW Department of Education, viewed 29/6/2020 https://education.nsw.gov.au/about-us/rights-and-accountability/legal-issues-bulletins/bulletin-55-transgender-students-in-schools

Leonard, W., Marshall, D., Hillier, L., Mitchell, A., & Ward, R. (2010). Beyond homophobia: Meeting the needs of same sex attracted and gender questioning (SSAGQ) young people in Victoria. A policy blueprint. Monograph Series Number 75. The Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University: Melbourne.

Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (Australia) 2008 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, Melbourne.

Robinson, KH, Bansel, P, Denson, N, Ovenden, G & Davies, C 2013, Growing Up Queer:Issues Facing Young Australians Who Are Gender Variant and Sexuality Diverse, Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre, Melbourne.

Ullman,J. 2015. Free to Be?: Exploring the schooling experiences of Australia’s sexuality and gender diverse secondary school students. Centre for Educational Research, School of Education, Western Sydney University, Penrith.

Mel Smith is the Trade Union Training Officer for the NSW Teachers Federation. Her work involves training union representatives and activists as well as organising and conducting conferences for beginning teachers, principals and other specific groups.

Mel also has responsibility for the union’s Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and Queer (LGBTIQ) Special Interest Group and Restricted Committee, which entails working with NSW public school teachers to address matters affecting LGBTIQ teachers and young people.

Mel worked as a secondary teacher and prior to working for the union she taught a range of HSIE subjects, particularly Commerce, Business Studies and Society & Culture.

Roselyn Dixon explains how to create an autism-friendly environment in mainstream settings…

Introduction

If educationalists try to follow a “recipe”, then they will sooner or later come across a child or a situation where the recipe does not work.

Autism is a lifelong developmental disability characterised by marked difficulties in social interaction, impaired communication, restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours and sensory sensitivities (APA 2013; Aspect 2018). Researchers estimate that around 1/68 of people are diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) (ADDMN 2014). Almost all students with ASD required specialised education adjustments to support their communication, social and learning difficulties (ABS 2014). The majority of these students are enrolled in regular education settings (Aspect 2013) with only one in four being enrolled in special schools (ABS 2014). All of these students may have differing needs. However, there are some evidence-based strategies that, if implemented to match their individual strengths and weaknesses can empower them to fulfil their potential in the inclusive classroom environment.

All students with ASD need educational adjustments

Although there are a number of strategies which have been proven to be successful, a careful analysis of the pupil’s learning needs must have taken place to understand how ASD will affect each individual pupil’s perspective, motivation and preferred ways of working.

There are no two people with ASD who will be exactly alike.

Therefore, it is imperative for educators to develop effective intervention strategies for students with ASD. The following strategies can be applied to students with ASD of all ages, across a range of settings (Attwood, 2007). However, the particular emphasis in this article is on those strategies which can be implemented by teachers and support personnel in the inclusive classroom.

Overall, most students with ASD will benefit from a structured and explicitly outlined teaching approach with clear expectations (Dixon et al., 2017). Structure and predictability can reduce anxiety and stress and, in some cases, challenging behaviour (Pittman, 2007). Students with autism also need structure and clarity in the presentation of tasks, in timetables and in the learning environment. This structured teaching approach needs to be supported, where appropriate, by visual materials.​

Manage the physical environment of the classroom

The physical learning environment impacts significantly on students on the autism spectrum because of their sensory sensitivities (Smith-Myles, 2005). It is important to provide as predictable and as calm an environment as possible. As a general rule, aim for a clutter-free environment to cut down on distraction and confusion. Sometimes it will be appropriate to provide a separate work area for certain pieces of work – this could be their work area, or a work station, incorporated into the classroom.

• Specific strategies for creating an autism-friendly classroom include:
• Set up an organised classroom where there are places for resources, stationary and personal belongings and teaching the students how to access the resources in an appropriate manner;
• Plan strategies along with places and times for calming breaks. This could include giving the student an individual break card;
• Set up a calm zone within the classroom. This is not time-out and can be used for short periods of time such as three to five minutes;
• Clearly define boundaries for specific areas using classroom furniture, masking tape, rugs and/or cushions. Also, these areas should be clearly labelled with a visual;
• Reduce visual clutter. Allow for some clear areas, especially near the seating areas of students on the Autism Spectrum, and change art works and student displays so as to avoid a visual overload;
• Be aware of sensory sensitivities and make commonsense changes to the environment (Smith-Myles, 2005).

Managing the teaching and learning environment of the classroom: the use of visuals, simplifying language and managing changes in routine

Visuals

Specific strategies can be designed to support students on the autism spectrum to learn more effectively (Pittman, 2007). As most students on the autism spectrum respond to information presented visually rather than relying on language or verbal instructions, one of the most commonly used strategies to support learning is the use of specialised visual supports. This has particular advantages for students with an ASD who have strengths in the visual modality and may experience difficulties dealing with abstract concepts (Attwood, 2007).

Whilst some students on the autism spectrum can function well using whole-class visuals it is often necessary to provide individual visuals (Walker, 2010).

Specific strategies that can be implemented using visuals include:

• Predicting and preparing for the day’s activities, which often reduces anxiety and distress;
• Organising themselves, which reduces confusion and frustration for teachers and students;
• Introducing and developing an understanding of the concept of time (now, next, finished);
• Working through tasks or common routines independently;
• Making choices and expressing opinions;
• Identifying and exploring feelings;
• Reflecting on personal experiences and behaviour patterns.

Another helpful strategy is to provide a checklist that breaks larger tasks down into more manageable parts that can be checked off when completed. This also serves as a visual support.

Simplifying language

Students with ASD have significant social communication problems. Social communication problems refer to the effective use and understanding of communication in a social context including non-verbal communication, such as eye gaze, facial expressions, body language, gestures and tone of voice. Also, they may appear to know a lot of words and use them correctly but often comprehension of meaning is lacking (Smith, 2012). Therefore, simplifying language is often necessary.

Specific strategies include:

• Check for comprehension of word meanings;
• Watch for literalness. Do not use metaphors, idioms or sarcasm;
• Be very specific when providing instructions to ensure that the student knows what to do, how to do it and when to do it. Use their name in an instruction;
• Keep language concise and simple, saying exactly what you mean, telling the student exactly what to do, for example, “Clean up the science lab” should be “Put the microscope back on the shelf”.

Managing changes in routine

Changes to routines are inevitable within classrooms and students do need to learn to cope with change. However, they need specific strategies within an autism-friendly environment to cope with change.

Specific strategies that can support students to manage changes in routine include:

• If possible, avoid sudden changes;
• Provide as much advanced warning of change as possible through visual representation. This may include a reminder of an upcoming event or change written on the board or a photo of the setting for an excursion coming up or a supply teacher coming in (Kluth, 2010);
• Prepare the student for change by discussing it in advance using a Social Narrative such as a Social Story (Gray, 2000);
• Provide a reason for the change and explain exactly what will happen and what is expected of the students;
• Students should be warned of any changes in routine for the day during the early morning class routine. Changes can be indicated on the visual timetable by placing a “not” visual on the activity concerned or preferably by removing the visual and replacing it with something else. Do remember to remind students of what is not going to change, such as all the other activities, the classroom and break times.

Managing the social environment of the classroom

There will also be a need to plan the social environment and be aware of strategies to support pupils to negotiate the hidden social curriculum of the classroom. Anxiety may also be an issue as children and young people on the autism spectrum may experience significant social interaction difficulties that need to be addressed before they are ready to learn. Social-emotional learning is fundamental to the success of every component of the teaching and learning program of the classroom. It is essential for students on the autism spectrum (Dixon, et al. 2017).

Specific strategies include:

• Social rules need to be taught where possible. Make social rules or procedures explicit and possibly use a supporting visual;
• Specific teaching of social skills;
• Social Stories describe a specific social situation and often include suggestions for appropriate actions in the future. Social stories should always be individualised. It is highly unlikely you will ever be able to photocopy a social story, as it would not be specific enough to your situation;
• Comic Strip Conversations are discussed and developed with the pupils in a factual non-judgmental way. The adult (or child) talks through a situation, illustrating relevant people with matchstick figures;
• Power Cards are a form of skill or behaviour modelling which show what a student SHOULD do, and not what a student SHOULD NOT do;
• A 5-Point Scale (Buron and Curtis, 2003) is a useful tool for teaching students how to recognise and communicate their distress. It can also aid them to self-calm and possibly prevent challenging behaviours from occurring.

Conclusion

Although all of the strategies suggested in this paper are evidence based it is important to reiterate that students with autism may respond individually to each one of them. It is important for educators to assess which strategies will work for the student on the autism spectrum in their classroom environments. However, by implementing the range of strategies suggested in this article to make a classroom an autism-friendly environment, teachers can contribute to a successful school experience for their students.

References:

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 2014. Prevalence of Autism (cat. no. 4428.0). Accessed July 1, 2016. https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/4428.0Main%20Features52012?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=4428.0&issue=2012&num=&view=.
American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network (ADDMN). 2014. Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years, Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2010. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Aspect. 2013. We Belong Too. Accessed November 12, 2018. https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/content/we-belong-key-findings.
Aspect. 2018. About the Autism Spectrum. Accessed November 12, 2018. https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/content/about-autism-spectrum.
Attwood, T. 2007. The Complete Guide to Asperger’s Syndrome. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Buron, K.D. & Curtis, M. 2003. The Incredible 5-point Scale: Assisting Student with Autism Spectrum Disorders in Understanding Social Interactions and Controlling Their Emotional Responses, Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Company.
Dixon, R., Woodcock, S., Tanner, K. Woodley, L. & Webster, A. 2017. Teaching in Inclusive School Environments, (2nd ed.) Macksville: David Barlow Publishing.
Gray, C. 2000. The New Social Story Book: Illustrated edition. Arlington, TX: Future Horizons.
Kluth, P. 2010. “You’re Going to Love this Kid!” Teaching Students with Autism in the Inclusive Classroom, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Pittman, M. 2007. Helping Pupils with Autistic Spectrum Disorders to Learn, London: SAGE Publications.
Smith, T. 2012. Making Inclusion Work for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Evidence-Based Guide, NY: The Guilford Press.
Smith-Myles,B., Cook, K., Miller, N.E.,Rinner, L. & Robbins, L.A. 2005. Asperger Syndrome and Sensory Issues, Shawnee Mission KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Co.
Walker, D. 2010. Educational Outreach Resources, Sydney Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect).

Dr. Roselyn Dixon has been a special education teacher in primary and high school schools and a research academic involved with Inclusive Education for over 25 years. She has published papers in the fields of social skills and behavioural interventions for people with a range of disabilities including students with Oppositional Defiance Disorders and Autism Spectrum Disorders

More recently she has been actively involved in examining the relationship between digital technologies and pedagogy in special education and inclusive classrooms for students with Autism Spectrum Disorders and the implications of the NDIS on people with disabilities in rural and remote communities. She has also published chapters and co-edited an International Handbook of research relating to Education and the Law.

She is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Education, University of Wollongong, where she is the Academic Director of Inclusive and Special Education.